The Deep Seabed Mining Race: Multilateralism Under Strain

The deep seabed is emerging as a critical arena for great power competition, particularly between China and the United States. China has established itself as the largest contractor within the International Seabed Authority (ISA), while the U.S. under President Donald Trump is pursuing unilateral licensing for seabed mining. This shift raises questions about the future of multilateral governance in the face of national interests and ecological concerns.

The Diplomat MagazineControversial Cook Islands seabed mining plan gets backing from former Australia PM Scott MorrisonThe ConversationHooray for the High Seas: the Global Ocean Treaty comes to life

The ISA, established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), is tasked with regulating seabed mining activities. However, as the ISA approaches the expiry of its "two-year rule," which requires it to consider exploitation applications even without a completed Mining Code, tensions have escalated. Pacific Island states, supported by the European Union and environmental NGOs, have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining due to fears of ecological destruction. These calls often clash with the strategic imperatives of major powers, particularly China, which frames its mining activities as aligned with UNCLOS principles.

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China's approach to seabed mining is characterized by significant investment in technology and a commitment to multilateralism, as articulated by President Xi Jinping during the September 2025 BRICS Summit. In contrast, the U.S. has adopted a more unilateral stance, with Trump criticizing global institutions and advocating for domestic licenses that bypass ISA regulations. This divergence highlights a broader conflict: while the U.S. seeks to secure supply chains and technological leadership, many other nations continue to support the UNCLOS framework.

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The potential ecological risks of deep-sea mining have prompted widespread criticism. Nearly 1,000 marine scientists and policy experts have signed a statement advocating for a moratorium on such activities. Critics argue that mining could lead to irreversible damage to marine ecosystems, threatening biodiversity and food security for resource-dependent economies. Activists, such as those from Greenpeace, have taken direct action against mining initiatives, emphasizing the need for stronger environmental safeguards.

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In his speech at the U.N. General Assembly, Trump underscored a unilateralist approach, rejecting renewable energy and criticizing the U.N.'s support for refugees. Conversely, Xi Jinping's advocacy for multilateralism positions China as a defender of international governance. The ISA faces the challenge of reconciling these divergent state preferences while ensuring ecological protections.

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As the ISA continues to draft new rules for commercial extraction, the newly ratified Global Ocean Treaty, which aims to protect 30% of the world's oceans by 2030, introduces further complexities. This treaty could conflict with existing mining regulations, raising questions about how to balance conservation with resource extraction. The upcoming meetings of treaty signatories will be crucial in determining how to navigate these competing interests.

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The future of deep-sea mining governance remains uncertain, with conflicting reports on the environmental impacts and regulatory frameworks. While some nations push for precautionary measures, others, including the Cook Islands, seek to exploit seabed resources for economic development. The lack of consensus on environmental standards and the potential for geopolitical friction complicate the landscape.

Controversial Cook Islands seabed mining plan gets backing from former Australia PM Scott Morrison

• “We never take such action lightly but if standing up for the oceans is a crime then that’s what we have to do.” — Niamh O’Flynn, Greenpeace Aotearoa Programme Director

Greenpeace activists convicted and discharged over seabed mining action

• “The choices made today will decide not only who gains access to critical minerals, but whether the idea of a rules-based order can survive in one of the world’s last true global commons.” — Unattributed source

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• “Let them make their own choices. They have right to their own development future and their ongoing sovereignty in terms of provision for future generations. Isn’t that the goal?” — Scott Morrison, Former Prime Minister of Australia

Controversial Cook Islands seabed mining plan gets backing from former Australia PM Scott Morrison

• “REEs power everything from smartphones and electric vehicles to defence systems and clean energy solutions,” — Droupadi Murmu, President of India

President urges self-reliance in rare earth production

The deep seabed mining race encapsulates the tension between national interests and the need for cooperative governance, with significant implications for both environmental sustainability and international relations.

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