Multi-Pathogen Threats to Southeast US Snakes Heighten Extinction Concerns

In a 2026 survey of over 500 wild snakes from two wildlife refuges in South Carolina and Florida, researchers identified seven infectious agents across 29 species. Only about 20 % of individuals were pathogen-free. *Salmonella enterica* infected 63 % of snakes, *Hepatozoon* spp. 53 %, and antibiotic-resistant *Mycoplasma* spp. 18 %. The fungus *Ophidiomyces ophidiicola* (Oo) was present in roughly one-third of snakes with skin lesions, while the lungworm *Raillietiella orientalis* (Ro) was found in 41 % of sampled rattlesnakes. Coinfections affected 44 % of snakes, with 11 % carrying three pathogens and 3 % carrying four. Pygmy rattlesnakes showed the highest fungal infection rate (12 of 34), while eastern ribbon and ring-necked snakes had low prevalence.

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Ophidiomycosis was first described about two decades ago, and most prior field work focused solely on the fungal pathogen. This study, led by Dr. Corinna Mishin of the University of Georgia, broadened surveillance to include bacterial and parasitic agents and was published in *Frontiers in Veterinary Science*.

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High pathogen loads, especially in rattlesnakes already subject to human persecution, may accelerate declines and raise extinction risk. The prevalent *Salmonella* poses zoonotic threats, and invasive Burmese pythons and brown anoles act as competent Ro hosts, increasing spillover potential. These findings highlight the need for biosecurity in wildlife translocation.

Rattlesnakes Identified as Highly Susceptible to Fungal Diseases and

Dr. Mishin emphasized that a multi-pathogen approach reveals hidden disease dynamics, that coinfections can suppress immunity, and that systematic pathogen surveillance should be embedded in conservation planning and translocation protocols.

Rattlesnakes Identified as Highly Susceptible to Fungal Diseases and

Ro detection relied on fecal analysis, likely underestimating prevalence, and sampling was limited to two refuges, restricting geographic coverage. The cross-sectional design precludes evaluation of disease progression, mortality, or long-term population effects.

Rattlesnakes Identified as Highly Susceptible to Fungal Diseases and

• “Corinna Mishin said: “The fungus Oo and the parasite Raillietiella orientalis (Ro), appear to be the most important infectious agents in free-ranging snakes in the south-eastern US.” — Dr. Corinna Mishin, University of Georgia

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• “We also show that increased risks of ophidiomycosis were strongly associated with coinfections in free-ranging native snakes.” — Dr. Corinna Mishin

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• “When an animal has become sick from an infection, their immune system is compromised, which increases the risk of further disease exacerbation from other infectious agents that may have once been subclinical.” — Dr. Corinna Mishin

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• “Mishin said: “We hypothesise that certain species with poorer general population health, specifically rattlesnakes with historic and current increased risks of human persecution, are likely more susceptible to infection with subsequent disease.” — Dr. Corinna Mishin

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The team recommends expanded, longitudinal monitoring across the southeastern United States, development of more sensitive Ro diagnostics, and integration of disease risk assessments into wildlife management and translocation guidelines, alongside collaboration with invasive-species researchers to map spillover pathways.

Rattlesnakes Identified as Highly Susceptible to Fungal Diseases and