Lockdown-Born Children Show Early Executive-Function Challenges, Study Finds

Researchers at City St George’s, University of London conducted the BICYCLE study (Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects) to assess developmental outcomes in children born during England’s first COVID-19 lockdown. The observational cohort comprised 205 children born between 23 March and 23 June 2020. Twenty-five participants were examined in person and 180 remotely via Zoom, using identical 45- to 60-minute testing protocols across three to four sessions. Standardised measures evaluated language and non-verbal reasoning, while caregivers completed questionnaires on executive functioning, emotional control, working memory, planning, and fine and gross motor skills.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

From 23 March 2020 to 19 July 2021, UK public-health rules limited household and peer contact, mandated social distancing and face coverings, and closed baby groups and recreational spaces. Researchers describe this period as a “uniquely disrupted first year” with severely reduced social interaction for infants and toddlers.

Lockdown legacy for children born during Covid-19 pandemic

• Caregiver-reported executive functioning was below typical pre-pandemic expectations and lower than predicted from non-verbal reasoning scores.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

• Approximately one third of the cohort was rated as having executive-function needs.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

• Overall language scores met or exceeded age-expected norms, yet expressive language (word use) fell short of predictions based on non-verbal reasoning, while receptive language appeared relatively protected.

Lockdown legacy for children born during Covid-19 pandemic

• Motor-skill reports aligned with age-related norms.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

No meaningful performance differences emerged between in-person and remote assessments, supporting the comparability of the two modalities.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

The authors argue that reduced early-life social diversity may hinder children’s ability to settle, maintain attention, follow instructions, resist distraction, and adapt behaviour based on feedback. If unaddressed, these executive-function deficits could affect school readiness and long-term academic achievement. The study therefore signals a potential need for targeted school-based and family-focused interventions to bolster attention control, problem-solving, and emotional regulation in this cohort.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

The research team emphasizes the preliminary nature of the findings, noting the observational design and absence of a matched comparison group. They call for ongoing longitudinal tracking of the lockdown-born cohort and suggest that additional resources may be required to support affected children in educational settings.

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• Observational design prevents causal inference between lockdown restrictions and developmental outcomes.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

• No matched control group limits the ability to isolate lockdown effects from broader temporal trends.

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• Self-selected sample: participants were more highly educated than the general English population (? 75 % held a degree), potentially inflating performance scores.

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• Parent-report bias: executive-function and motor-skill data relied on caregiver questionnaires rather than direct testing, introducing subjectivity.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

• Future data: Direct executive-function measures are planned for later study phases, which may clarify the extent of observed deficits.

England study finds lockdown-born children harder to focus and manage

• “Limited mixing during early childhood was associated with some key areas of development, they found, though overall language scores and motor skills were at or above expected levels for age.” — Study authors

Lockdown legacy for children born during Covid-19 pandemic

• “One third of children in the sample were rated as having executive functioning needs.” — Study authors

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• “Overall language scores were at or above expected levels for age.” — Study authors

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• “This study highlights the need for continued tracking of the cohort of children born during the COVID-19 lockdowns. Additional resources may be needed for school and family interventions to support the executive function needs of these children.” — Study authors

Children born during lockdown in England found it more difficult to focus, follow instructions and regulate their emotions at 4 years of age

• “The authors stated: “This study highlights the need for continued tracking of the cohort of children born during the Covid-19 lockdowns.” — Study authors

Lockdown legacy for children born during Covid-19 pandemic